Ninth Amendment - Rights Retained by the People
Listing specific rights doesn't mean those are your only rights. Anti-Federalists feared that naming rights to speech, religion, and assembly would imply the government could control everything else. [James Madison](https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Madison/01-12-02-0239) designed the Ninth Amendment to foreclose that argument.
Original Text
The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.
The Ninth Amendment is primarily a rule of construction—an interpretive instruction—not a freestanding source of new rights. It tells courts how to read the Bill of Rights: the fact that certain rights are listed doesn't mean unlisted rights don't exist or that government can violate them.
The Founders worried that enumerating specific rights would imply a dangerous negative—that everything not listed was surrendered to the government. The Ninth Amendment prevents that inference. It doesn't define what unenumerated rights exist. Courts can't point to the Ninth Amendment alone and declare a new right; they must ground unenumerated rights in other constitutional provisions, history, or tradition.
In practice, courts rely on the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment—not the Ninth Amendment—to protect unenumerated rights. The Ninth Amendment confirms those rights exist; the Fourteenth Amendment provides the doctrinal mechanism to enforce them.
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Historical Context
Anti-Federalists feared a written Bill of Rights would backfire. If specific rights were listed, future courts might read the list as complete—meaning anything not enumerated was surrendered. [James Madison](https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Madison/01-12-02-0239) called this "one of the most plausible arguments" against enumeration. His solution was the Ninth Amendment: a clause clarifying that naming some rights "shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people." Madison introduced the draft on June 8, 1789, and Congress approved it as part of the package that became the Bill of Rights. The states ratified it on [December 15, 1791](https://www.archives.gov/founding-docs/bill-of-rights/what-does-it-say). The amendment's modern influence has been limited. Justice Goldberg's concurrence in *Griswold v. Connecticut* (1965) argued the Ninth Amendment could independently protect marital privacy as a fundamental right. The majority chose a different theory—"penumbras" from multiple amendments. Since *Griswold*, courts have consistently relied on the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment rather than the Ninth to protect unenumerated rights. The Ninth Amendment confirms those rights are retained; it doesn't tell courts which rights or how to enforce them.
How This Shows Up Today
- Cited in Griswold v. Connecticut (1965) for privacy
- Used to argue for rights not explicitly listed
- Rarely basis for court decisions alone
Discussion Questions4
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