Bush orders Operation Just Cause, removes Panamanian leader Manuel Noriega without a war declaration

President George H.W. Bush orders 27,000 U.S. troops into Panama under Operation Just Cause, the largest U.S. military operation since Vietnam. The stated goals: protect U.S. citizens, defend the Panama Canal, restore democracy, and capture Manuel Noriega, whom a federal grand jury had indicted on drug trafficking charges in 1988. Bush notifies congressional leaders but does not seek prior authorization, citing Article II commander-in-chief authority. Noriega surrenders January 3, 1990, and is extradited to face drug charges in Miami. Human rights groups estimate 500 Panamanian civilians die in the operation. Congress debates the War Powers Resolution but holds no binding vote. The operation establishes a template that subsequent administrations — including Trump's 2025 Venezuela campaign — follow: drug-trafficking designation + Article II + no advance congressional authorization.