George W. Bush, 42nd President

Heller held that the Second Amendment protects an individual right to keep a firearm for lawful self-defense in the home. The Court struck down D.C.'s handgun ban and functional-storage rule, but it also said the right is not unlimited and did not question several longstanding categories of firearms regulation.

The Court ruled that Guantanamo detainees have the constitutional right to seek habeas corpus review in federal court. Congress could not replace habeas with a limited review process that did not let detainees meaningfully challenge the basis for their detention.

Parents Involved struck down Seattle and Jefferson County student-assignment plans that used individual racial classifications. The controlling result barred these specific plans but left room for narrower race-conscious efforts to reduce racial isolation and promote diversity.

Ledbetter v. Goodyear held that Lilly Ledbetter’s Title VII pay-discrimination claim was untimely because she did not file within the charging period after the pay-setting decisions. Congress later changed the rule through the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009.

Bell Atlantic v. Twombly held that a federal complaint must contain enough factual matter to make the claim plausible. In the antitrust case before the Court, allegations of parallel conduct were not enough without facts suggesting an agreement.

Gonzales v. Carhart upheld the federal Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act against a facial constitutional challenge. The Court found the law was not vague and did not impose an undue burden on its face, while leaving as-applied challenges possible. Dobbs later overruled the Roe/Casey framework that shaped the case.

Massachusetts v. EPA held that greenhouse gases are air pollutants under the Clean Air Act and that EPA could not refuse to regulate them for reasons outside the statute. The Court also held that Massachusetts had standing to sue over EPA’s refusal to regulate vehicle greenhouse-gas emissions.

Hamdan v. Rumsfeld held that the military commission set up to try Salim Hamdan was unlawful because it violated the UCMJ and Common Article 3 of the Geneva Conventions. The decision limited unilateral executive power over military trials at Guantánamo.

Rapanos v. United States was a fractured Clean Water Act wetlands case. The Court vacated and remanded, producing competing tests for when wetlands count as waters of the United States. Justice Kennedy’s significant-nexus test became especially important until later cases, including Sackett, narrowed the doctrine.

MGM v. Grokster held that technology distributors can be liable for copyright infringement when they intentionally induce users to infringe. The Court preserved Sony’s protection for technologies with lawful uses but created a path for liability based on promotion of infringement.

Kelo v. City of New London held that economic development can count as public use under the Fifth Amendment when part of a comprehensive redevelopment plan. The decision allowed the city’s takings, but it produced major backlash and state-level reforms limiting eminent domain.

Gonzales v. Raich held that Congress may apply the federal Controlled Substances Act to locally grown medical marijuana allowed under state law. The Court reasoned that Congress could regulate local cultivation as part of a comprehensive scheme governing the national marijuana market.

Roper v. Simmons held that the Constitution bars the death penalty for crimes committed by people under 18. The Court relied on the Eighth Amendment, youth-development differences, and national consensus against juvenile execution.